Dr. Farooq's Study Resource Page
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Foreword to Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun |
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IN THE NAME OF GOD, THE MERCIFUL, THE COMPASSIONATE. PRAY, O GOD, FOR OUR
LORD MUHAMMAD AND HIS FAMILY AND THE MEN AROUND HIM. Praised be God! He is powerful and mighty. In His hand, He holds royal authority and kingship.2 His are the most beautiful names and attributes. His knowledge is such that nothing, be it revealed in secret whispering or (even) left unsaid, remains strange to Him. His power is such that nothing in heaven and upon earth is too much for Him or escapes Him. He created us from the earth as living, breathing creatures. He made us to settle 3 on it as races and nations. From it, He provided sustenance and provisions for us.
1 These words are written in
Maghribi script in B and C. MSS written later in Ibn Khaldun's life are
more effusive. A already has: "The Shaylth, jurist, imam, (religious)
scholar, chief judge, Wali-ad-din ' Abd-ar-Rai)m.1n b. Khaldun-God
lengthen his life-has said. ..." C adds in the margin: "This is
the Muslim judge, Wali-ad-din Abu Zayd al-M.1liki." D reads:
"Our Lord and Master, the servant of God who needs God, Wali-ad-din,
the Muslim judge, Abu Zayd 'Abd-ar-Rai)m.1n b. Khaldun al-l;1aQrami
al-M.1liki -God lengthen his days and strengthen his judgments and repair
all his powers [cf. n. 145, below] and seal his actions with good deeds in
His excellence and and generosity, for He is likely and able to do that,
and He 'has power over everything' -has said. ..." 2
These terms (mulk and malaklut) are commonly used to refer to tile natural
and supernatural worlds, respectively.
3
The root 'mr, from which 'umrli'n "civilization" is derived, is
used here. It is the purpose of the lthutbah "invocation" of
Arabic works to summarize the main theme of the work, and this is what Ibn
Khaldun attempts to do here in two paragraphs.
The
word "races," Arabic jll, may also mean "generations."
It is occasionally translated by "groups." See p. 249, I. 2,
below. The wombs of our mothers and houses are our abode. Sustenance and food keep us alive. Time wears us out. Our lives' final terms, the dates of which have been fixed for us in the book (of destiny), claim us. But He lasts and persists. He is the Living One who does not die. Prayer and
blessings upon our Lord and Master, Muhammad, the Arab 4
prophet, whom Torah and Gospel have mentioned and described; 5
him for whose birth the world that is was (already) in labor before
Sundays were following upon Saturdays in regular sequence and before
Saturn and Behemoth had become separated; 6 him to whose
truthfulness pigeon and spider bore witness.7 4
Bulaq
adds "illiterate." 5
In the medieval polemics between Muslims and Christians and Muslims and
Jews, an important subject of discussion was the references to Muhammad
that, according to Muslim theologians, could be found in Scripture. Cf.,
for instance, Maimonides, Epistle to Yemen, ed. and tr. A. S. Halkin and
B. Cohen (New York, 1952), p. VIII; J. Horovitz in El, s.v. "Tawrat";
W. M. Watt, "His Name is AQmad," in 'The Muslim World, XLIII
(1955), 110-17. 6
Muhammad existed prior to time and space, if not in body at least in soul
and through the divine light of prophecy, which, as something divine, was
also primeval. The (Neo-Platonic, mystic, Shi'ah) theory of the primeval
prophetic light was common in orthodox Islam long before Ibn Khaldun's
time and had been spread mainly through the medium of Sufism. Cf. T.
Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds in Lehre und Glauben seiner Gemeinde
(Stockholm, 1917), pp. 515 ff.; L. Massignon in El, s.v. "Nur MuQam-
madi.'. Saturn
occupies the seventh heaven and, therefore, represents the most remote
distance. Cf. W. Hartner in El, s.v. "ZuQal." AI-Bah(a)mlit
is the Biblical Behemoth of Job 40:15, which Jewish tradition identified
with Leviathan. Some commentators of Qur' an 68.1 ( 1 ) ( cf. al-Baydawi
and the references given by de Slane) identify the mythological fish upon
which the earth rests with Behemoth. 7
When Muhammad left
Mecca to go to Medina, he stayed in a cave for some time. Meccans who went
after him saw that two pigeons had built a nest over the entrance to the
cave, and/or a spider had spread a web over it. They concluded that no one
could have used the cave recently. This famous legend, which is mentioned
by the commentaries on Qur'an 9.40 ( 40), is of rather late origin and was
considered with some suspicion even by medieval biographers of the
Prophet. Cf. Ibn Kathir, Bidliyah (Cairo, 1551-58/1952-4.0), III, 181 f. ( Prayer and
blessings) also upon his family and the men around him who by being his
companions 8 and followers gained wide influence and fame and
who by supporting him found unity while their enemies were weakened
through dispersion. Pray, O God, for him and them, for as long as Islam
shall continue to enjoy its lucky fortune and the frayed rope of unbelief
shall remain cut! Give manifold blessings (to him and them) ! 8Suhbatihl,
as in B and D. A, C, and E have mahabbatihl "loving him." FOREWARD HISTORY is a discipline widely cultivated among nations and races. It is eagerly sought after. The men in the street, the ordinary people, aspire to know it. Kings and leaders vie for it. Both the learned and the ignorant are able to understand it. For on the surface history is no more than information about political events, dynasties, and occurrences of the remote past, elegantly presented and spiced with proverbs. It serves to entertain large, crowded gatherings and brings to us an understanding of human affairs. (It shows) how changing conditions affected (human affairs) , how certain dynasties came to occupy an ever wider space in the world, and how they settled the earth until they heard the call and their time was up. The inner meaning of history, on the other hand, involves speculation and an attempt to get at the truth, subtle explanation of the causes and origins of existing things, and deep knowledge of the how and why of events. (History) therefore, is firmly rooted in philosophy. It deserves to be accounted a branch of (philosophy).9 The outstanding Muslim historians made exhaustive collections of historical events and wrote them down in book form. But, then, persons who had no right to occupy themselves with history introduced into those books untrue gossip which they had thought up or freely invented, as well as false, discredited reports which they had made up or embellished. Many of their successors followed in their steps and 9 Cf. Bombaci, p. 441 Little effort is being made to get at the truth. The critical eye, as a rule, is not sharp. Errors and unfounded assumptions are closely allied and familiar elements in historical information. Blind trust in tradition is an inherited trait in human beings. Occupation with the (scholarly) disciplines on the part of those who have no right is widespread. But the pasture of stupidity is unwholesome for mankind. No one can stand up against the authority of truth, and the evil of falsehood is to be fought with enlightening speculation. The reporter merely dictates and passes on (the material) .It takes critical insight to sort out the hidden truth; it takes knowledge to lay truth bare and polish it so that critical insight may be applied to it. Many systematic historical works have been composed, and the history of nations and dynasties in the world has been compiled and written down. But there are very few (historians) who have become so well known as to be recognized as authorities, and who have replaced the products of their predecessors by their own works. They can almost be counted on the fingers of the hands; they are hardly more numerous than the vowels in grammatical constructions (which are just three). There are, for instance, Ibn Ishaq;10 at-Tabari;11 Ibn al-Kalbi;12 Muhammad b. ‘Umar al-Waqidi;13 Sayf b. ‘Umar al-Asadi;14 al-Mas'udi,15 and other famous 10 Muhammad b. Ishaq, author of the famous biography (sirah) of Muhammad. He died in 150 or 151 [A.D. 767/68]. Cf. GAL, I, 15-j, f.; Suppl., I, 205 f. 11
Muhammad b. Jarir,
author of the .Annales, 22-j,/25-510 [859-925]. Cf. GAL, I, 1-j,2 f.;
Suppl., 1,217 f. 12
Hisham b. Muhammad, d. 2040 or 206 [819/20 or 821/22]. Cf. GAL, I, 158
ff.; Suppl., 1,211 f. 13
The biographer of Muhammad and historian of early Islam, 1:30-207
[7407-825]. Cf. GAL, 1,155 f.; .Suppl., 1,207 f. 14
He died in 180 [796/97]. Cf. GAL, Suppl., 1,215 f. 15.
.Ali b. al-Husayn, d. 5+5 or 5'1-6 [956 or 957]. Cf. GAL, I, 145 ff.;
Suppt., I, 270 f. (historians) who are distinguished from the general run ( of historians). It is well known to competent persons and reliable experts that the works of al-Mas'udi and al-Waqidi are suspect and objectionable in certain respects.16 However, their works have been distinguished by universal acceptance of the information they contain and by adoption of their methods and their presentation of material. The discerning critic is his own judge as to which part of their material he finds spurious, and which he gives credence to. Civilization, in its (different) conditions, contains (different) elements to which historical information may be related and with which reports and historical materials may be checked. Most of the histories by these (authors) cover everything because of the universal geographical extension of the two earliest Islamic dynasties17 and because of the very wide selection of sources of which they did or did not make use. Some of these authors, such as al-Mas'udi and historians of his type, gave an exhaustive history of the pre-Islamic dynasties and nations and of other (pre-Islamic) affairs in general. Some later historians, on the other hand, showed a tendency toward greater restriction, hesitating to be so general and comprehensive. They brought together the happenings of their own period and gave exhaustive historical information about their own part of the world. They restricted themselves to the history of their own dynasties and cities. This was done by Ibn Hayyan, the historian of Spain 16
Ibn Khaldun's Egyptian pupil, Ibn 1:1 ajar, is a good witness as to the
partisan objections of theologians against the historians mentioned. Al-
Mas'udi's works are out of circulation (tafihah), because he was a Shi'ah
and Mu'tazilah, and the Spaniard Ibn Dihyah (cf. G.11.L, 1,310 ff.; Suppl.,
I, 544 f.) thought very little of him. Cf. Ibn Hajar, List1n al-Mizt1n (
Hydera bad, 1329-31/1911-13), IV, 224f. AI-W3.qidi is often considered an
un- truthful transmitter of historical traditoGns and ignorant of
pre-Islamic his- tory. Ash-Sh3.fi'i declared all his writings to be lies.
Cf. al-Khatib al- Baghd3.di, 'Ta'ri~.h Baghdad (Cairo, 1349/1931), 111, 14
ff.; and Ibn 1:1 ajar, 'Tahdhib (Hyderabad, 1325-27/1907-9), IX, 363 ff. 17
That is, the Umayyads
and the 'Abb3.sids. and the Spanish Umayyads,18 and by Ibn ar-Raqiq, the historian of Ifriqiyah and the dynasty in Kairouan (al-Qayrawan).19 The later historians were all tradition-bound and dull of nature and intelligence, or, (at any rate) did not try not to be dull. They merely copied 20 the (older historians) and followed their example. They disregarded the changes in conditions and in the customs of nations and races that the passing of time had brought about. Thus, they presented historical information about dynasties and stories of events from the early period as mere forms without substance, blades without scabbards, as knowledge that must be considered ignorance, because it is not known what of it is extraneous and what is genuine. (Their information) concerns happenings the origins of which are not known. It concerns species the genera of which are not taken into consideration, and whose (specific) differences are not verified.21 With the information they set down they merely repeated historical material which is, in any case, widely known, and followed the earlier historians who worked on it. They neglected the importance of change over the generations in their treatment of the (historical material), because they had no one who could interpret it for them. Their works, therefore, give no explanation for it. When they then turn to the description of a particular dynasty, they report the historical information about it (mechanically) and take care to preserve it as it had been passed on down to them, be it imaginary or true. They 19 Ibrfthim b. al-Qftsim, who lived CQ. A.D. 1000. Cf. GAL, I, 155; Suppl., 1,229, 252; see also below, I :360 and 3:365. Ifriqiyah
reflects the name of the Roman province of Africa. This geo- graphical
term is commonly used by Ibn Khaldun ( cf. p. 130, below) and has been
retained in the translation. 20 Literally, "wove on the loom.'. Cf., for instance, n. l444 to Ch. VI, below.
21
For these terms of
logic, see below, 3: I 42, I45, and 272, for example. do
not turn to the beginning of the dynasty. Nor do they tell why it unfurled
its banner and was able to give prominence to its emblem, or what caused
it to come to a stop when it had reached its term. The student, thus, has
still to search for the beginnings of conditions and for (the principles
of) organization of (the various dynasties). He must (himself) investigate
why the various dynasties brought pressures to bear upon each other and
why they succeeded each other. He must search for a convincing explanation
of the elements that made for mutual separation or contact among the
dynasties. All this will be dealt with in the Introduction to this work. Other
historians, then, came with too brief a presentation (of history). They
went to the extreme of being satisfied with the names of kings, without
any genealogical or historical information, and with only a numerical
indication of the length of reigns.22 This was done by Ibn
Rashiq in the Mizan al-‘amal,23 and by those lost
sheep who followed his method. No credence can be given to what they say.
They are not considered trustworthy, nor is their material considered
worthy of transmission, for they caused useful material to be lost and
damaged the methods and customs acknowledged (as sound and practical) by
historians. When I had read the works of others and probed into the recesses of yesterday and today, I shook myself out of that drowsy complacency and sleepiness. Although not much of a writer,24 I exhibited my own literary ability as well as I could, and, thus, composed a book on history. In (this book) I lifted the veil from conditions as they arise in the various generations. I arranged it in an orderly way in chapters 22:For
the so-called "dust letters" mentioned here as used for
numerical indication, see n. 882 to Ch. VI, below 23
Hasan b. Rashiq, 390
to 456 or 463 (1000 to 1064 or 1070/71]. Cf. GAL, I, 307; Suppl., 1,539 f.
Ibn Khaldun's reference to the Miztin al-'alnal was apparently copied by
l;Iajji Khalifah, Kashf al-Zunun, ed. F1ugel (Leipzig & London,
1835-58), VI, 9.85. The Miztin al-'arnal is not preserved. 24
Literally, "I
bargained on my own for authorship though I was bankrupt. ..." dealing with historical facts and reflections. In it I showed how and why dynasties and civilization originate. I based the world on the history of the two races that constitute the population of the Maghrib at this time and people its various regions and cities, and on that of their ruling houses, both long- and short-lived, including the rulers and allies they had in the past. These two races are the Arabs and the Berbers. They are the two races known to have resided in the Maghrib for such a long time that one can hardly imagine they ever lived elsewhere, for its inhabitants know no other human races. I corrected the
contents of the work carefully and presented it to the judgment of
scholars and the elite. I followed an unusual method of arrangement and
division into chapters. From the various possibilities, I chose a
remarkable and original method. In the work, I commented on civilization,
on urbanization, and on the essential characteristics of human social
organization, in a way that explains to the reader how and why things are
as they are, and shows him how the men who constituted a dynasty first
came upon the historical scene. As a result, he will wash his hands of any
blind trust in tradition. He will become aware of the conditions of
periods and races that were before his time and that will be after it. I divided the work
into an introduction and three books: The Introduction deals with the great merit of historiography, (offers) an appreciation of its various methods, and cites errors of the historians. The First Book deals with civilization and its essential characteristics, namely, royal authority, government, gainful occupations, ways of making a living, crafts, and sciences, as well as with the causes and reasons thereof. The Second Book deals with the history, races, and dynasties of the Arabs, from the beginning of creation down to this time. This will include references to such famous nations and dynasties contemporaneous with them,25 as the Nahataeans,26 the Syrians, the Persians, the Israelites, the Copts, the Greeks, the Byzantines, and the Turks. The Third Book deals with the history of
the Berhers and of the Zanatah who are part of them; with their origins
and races; and, in particular, with the royal authority and dynasties in
the Maghrib. Later on, there was my trip to the East, in order to find out about the manifold illumination it offers and to fulfill the religious duty and custom of circumambulating the Ka'bah and visiting Medina, as well as to study the systematic works and tomes on (Eastern) history. As a result, I was able to fill the gaps in my historical information about the non-Arab (Persian) rulers of those lands, and about the Turkish dynasties in the regions over which they ruled. I added this information to what I had writ tell here (before in this connection) . I inserted it into the treatment of the nations of the various districts and rulers of the various cities and regions that were contemporary with those (Persian and Turkish) races. In this connection I was brief and concise and preferred the easy goal to the difficult one. I proceeded from general genealogical (tables) 27 to detailed historical information. Thus, (this work) contains an exhaustive history of the world. It forces stubborn stray wisdom to return to the fold, It gives causes and reasons for happenings in the various dynasties. I t turns out to be a vessel for philosophy, a receptacle for historical knowledge. The work contains the 25
Since the pre-Islamic
Arabs are considered to have existed since the beginning of the world, all
the nations of the world may be said to have been their contemporaries. 26
The Nabataeans, according to Muslim belief, were the pre-Islamic
population indigenous to the 'Iraq. The ancient Syrians, as well as the
Nabataeans, include the ancient Mesopotamians. 27
Bulaq and E have al-ababb "general causes,'. but the reading al-anslib
seems preferable. The genealogical tables are the ones which Ibn Khaldun
regularly adds to the historical description of peoples and dynasties in
the 'lbar. history of the Arabs and the Berbers, both the sedentary groups and the nomads. It also contains references to the great dynasties that were contemporary with them, and, moreover, clearly indicates memorable lessons to be learned from early conditions and from subsequent history. There- fore, I called the work "Book of Lessons and Archive of Early and Subsequent History, Dealing with the Political Events Concerning the Arabs, Non-Arabs, and Berbers, and the Supreme Rulers Who Were Contemporary with Them." 28 I omitted nothing concerning the origin of races and dynasties, concerning the synchronism of the earliest nations, concerning the reasons for change and variation in past periods and within religious groups, concerning dynasties and religious groups, towns and hamlets, strength and humiliation, large numbers and small numbers, sciences and crafts, gains and losses, changing general conditions, nomadic and sedentary life, actual events and future events, all things expected to occur in civilization. I treated everything comprehensively and exhaustively and explained the arguments for and causes of it(s existence). Al-mubtada'
and al-khabar placed next to each other are grammatical terms which refer
to the subject and predicate of a nominal sentence. The subject of a
nominal sentence comes at the beginning and the predicate usually at the
end. The sense in which Ibn Khaldun wants "beginning" and
"end" to be understood here is made amply clear by the preceding
sentence (as well as by the whole Muqaddimah). In the preceding sentence,
mubtada' al-a~wal wa-ma ba'dahu min al-khabar, translated here by .'early
conditions and subsequent history," refers to the "early
conditions," the beginnings of human social and political
organization, \\"hich come first like the subject of a nominal
sentence; '.subsequent history" ( khabar) follows upon them as the
predicate of a nominal sentence follows its subject. The grammatical con-
nection is conceived by Ibn Khaldun as a logical connection, suggesting a
causal nexus between "early beginnings" and .'subsequent
history." As a result, this book has become unique, as it contains unusual knowledge and familiar if hidden wisdom. Still, after all has been said, I am conscious of imperfection when ( I look at) the scholars of (past and contemporary) times.29 I confess my inability to penetrate so difficult a subject. I wish that men of scholarly competence and wide knowledge would look at the book with a critical, rather than a complacent eye, and silently correct and overlook the mistakes they come upon. The capital of knowledge that an individual scholar has to offer is small. Admission (of one's shortcomings) saves from censure. Kindness from colleagues is hoped for. It is God whom I ask to make our deeds acceptable in His sight. He suffices me. He is a good protector.30
30
Cf. Qur'an 5.175 ( 167). In some MSS, a dedication addressed to a particular
patron follows here.
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